Soil Analysis Essay Example

Soil Analysis Essay Example Soil Analysis Essay Soil Analysis Essay Soil forms the basis of the world we live in. It is the top layer of the Earths surface, consisting of rock and mineral particles mixed with organic matter. There are many varieties of soil around the world from Clay to Sand and from Rainforest to Mud. Different types of soil have their own individual characteristics that in turn affect the suitability of growth. This is due to different nutrient levels, water holding capability, pH etc. Many species of plants have adapted to better suit their soil environment. These adaptations have allowed certain plant species to thrive in an area in which other plants would never survive. Mangroves are highly admired for the way they have adapted to live in a saline environment. Flora naturally need freshwater to survive just as we do. Then how can mangroves survive growing in salt water? Mangroves have adapted to filter out the salt when it is absorbed along with the nutrient filled water. This salt is excreted through roots, leaves and bark. What is left is freshwater that can be used by the mangrove. This may seem like a big deal when you could just grow in fresh water however this adaptation allows mangroves to have less competition from other flora. The following experiments are to observe the individual characteristics of 3 different Zones of Mangrove Mud and also Beach, Rainforest and Clay Soil. The purpose of these experiments is to carry out various experiments and thus observe the different characteristics of soils. These characteristics can be compared to see how differences in soil might determine the type of vegetation that grows there. Safety Precautions: Make sure gloves are worn at all times as there are some harmful bacteria and diseases in dirt. Experiment 1 Soil Texture: Aim: To find the percentage of sand, clay and silt in different soil samples. Prediction: I predict that the soil with the highest percentage of sand will be the Trinity Beach sample. The soil with the highest percentage of clay will be the Clay sample. The soil with the highest percentage of silt will be the Outer Zone Mangrove Sample. Materials: * 6 x 200mL measuring cylinders * 3 x Mud samples from different areas of the mangroves (Inner, Middle and Outer Zones) * Ruler with mm measurements * Disposable Gloves * 3 x Samples of various areas (Beach, Rainforest and Clay Soil) * Spoons * Sieve Diagram: (For Step 4 and 5) Procedure: 1. Sift all of the samples to remove insoluble lumps of dirt, plant debris etc. 2. Measure 40mL of the first dried sample (for example Inner Zone Mud) into a measuring cylinder and label it accordingly. 3. Fill the cylinder with 200mL of water and shake until all the dirt particles are mixed throughout the water. 4. Put the cylinder down on a level bench and measure the depth of the sediment after the following time intervals: 30 seconds, 30 minutes, and 12 hours. 5. Repeat for each dirt sample. Record results on the table. Results: Mangrove Mud: Inner Zone Mud Middle Zone Mud Outer Zone Mud Stoney Creek Rainforest Trinity Beach Soil Clay Soil 30s depth (sand) 30 min depth 12 hour depth (total depth) 17 mm 30 mm 41 mm 11 mm 20 mm 37 mm 5 mm 34 mm 51 mm Minimal 29 mm 38 mm 28 mm 32 mm 33 mm 12 mm 25 mm 54 mm Sand layer (30s depth) Silt layer (30 min 30s depth) Clay layer (12h 30min depth) 17 mm 13 mm 11 mm 11 mm 9 mm 17 mm 5 mm 29 mm 17 mm Minimal à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 29 mm 9 mm 28 mm 4 mm 1 mm 12 mm 13 mm 29 mm % Sand = Sand depth Total depth 41.46 % 29.73 % 9.80 % Minimal 84.85 % 22.22 % % Silt = Silt depth Total depth 31.71 % 24.32 % 56.86 % à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 76.32 % 12.12 % 24.07 % % Clay = Clay depth Total depth 26.83 % 45.95 % 33.34 % 23.68 % 3.03 % 53.70 % Discussion: There are many different kinds of soil and they all have there own individual characteristics that affect the flora growth in that type of soil. These characteristics are things like: * The capacity of soil to hold minerals and water * The movement (capillary action) of water into soil * The drainage ability of water through the soil These are just a few of the characteristics affected by the amounts of clay, sand and silt present in the soil. These three sediment types were determined through the experiment above. It was determined that the soil sample with the highest percentage of sand was Trinity Beach with 84.95% of the sample being made up of sand. This is obviously no surprise but note how it is still made up of other types of sediment. On average sand is made of silica which is a mineral similar to quartz and opal. This is a hard substance that resists erosion. This insoluble mineral does not offer the best conditions for flora growth as nutrient and water trapping in the soil is difficult. The sand in the Trinity Beach area upholds the characteristics outlined for silica however due to the results above it is evident that the soil also contains 12.12% of silt and 3.03% of clay. These other sediments may help to trap the necessary nutrients for plant growth in the soil. The flora that grows on the beach is hardy (casuarinas and Spinifex). This is due to the limited amount of water and nutrients available. The highest percentage of Silt in the soil samples was Stoney Creek rainforest (76.32%). Rainforest is a nutrient high area where flora growth is prominent. This nutrient level is due to the way silt (and also clay) traps the nutrient rich water needed for the extensive growth. Silt is made up of finely eroded rock (this rock is largely made up of quartz and feldspar). This sedimentary silt is washed down with the rain and is trapped amongst the roots of trees. In relation to the mangroves, this silt is washed downstream in the annual floods and trapped in the particular roots (stilt, prop etc). This root network holds the nutrient laden silt to be used when needed. Without these roots (if the mangroves are cut down) the silt will wash through along with the nutrients. This silt collects at river mouths, causing shallower water and in the case of the nearby Great Barrier Reef in the Cairns area silt deposits that destroys the original habitat. Obviously the clay soil sample contained the highest percentage of clay (53.70%). Clay, when wet, is a flexible substance that can be moulded at will. When dry it becomes rock like and perfect for holding soil together. This characteristic is highly beneficial to the environment in the way it helps to prevent erosion. Clay is not necessarily highly nutrient filled sediment but, like clay, it is finer grained and holds a lot of water. Soil with high clay percentages is not a preferable flora environment because it is not well draining. Some plants still live in clay soil and many Australian plants have adapted to this especially wattles. Mangrove Mud contains its fair share of clay (ranging from 36% to 46%). This clay is responsible for the sticky characteristic of mud when it is wet. Clay helps to hold the mud together to avoid it being washed into the river or wetland. Clay is not well draining and could be responsible for the way mangrove mud appears to be wet even when the tide ha s long since gone out. It was often difficult to take readings of the amount of soil that had settled at different time periods. In the case of the mud samples they are rich in silt and clay and this clouded the water. It was difficult to determine what was actually settled from what was still suspended in the water above. A reading was taken and this was compared to readings taken when the water had cleared and all particles had settled. At this stage it was quite easy to see the different sediments that had settled. This difficulty in recording the levels could give reason for an amount of percentage error. Conclusion: The different sedimentary percentages analysed in this experiment are responsible for the individual flora species that grow in some areas but not in others. This variation in plant types is important to provide different habitats and food sources for Australian wildlife and marine species. Experiment 2 Soil Permeability: Aim: To observe the rate at which 50mL of water passes through different samples of saturated soil and mud. Prediction: I predict that it will take the longest amount of time for 50mL of water to pass through the Outer Zone Mud. I predict that it will take the shortest amount of time for 50mL of water to pass through the Trinity Beach Soil Sample. Materials: * 6 x 100mL measuring cylinders * 3 x Mud samples from different areas of the mangroves (Inner, Middle and Outer Zones) * 1 x 100mL beaker * Disposable Gloves * 3 x Samples of various areas (Beach, Rainforest and Clay Soil) * Filter Wool * 6 x 75mm filter funnels * 6 x Timers Diagram: (For Steps 8 and 9) Procedure: 1. Loosely plug the necks of all the filter funnels with filter wool and place a 100mL measuring cylinder beneath each of them. 2. Take up the first funnel. Fill the funnel about one third with the first sample of dry dirt. 3. Repeat this for each individual funnel and dirt sample. 4. Place each funnel in a 100mL measuring cylinder. 5. Pour approximately 50mL of water in each funnel. 6. Allow the water to filter through the dirt until it stops dripping. This is the point at which the dirt is fully saturated. 7. When this point is reached empty the cylinders and replace back under the saturated soil funnels. 8. Pair each funnel and measuring cylinder set up with a Timer. Add 50mL of water to each funnel and start their timers as you do so. 9. Time how long it takes for the 50mL to pass through each sample that is until the drip rate is less than one drip per minute. 10. Do NOT discard the saturated soil sample as it will be used in Experiment 3. Results: Sample Type Time It Takes For 50mL To Pass Through Saturated Sample Inner Zone 13.56 minutes Middle Zone 17.32 minutes Outer Zone 23.14 minutes Clay Soil No Dripping At All Trinity Beach Soil (Sand) 17.32 minutes Rainforest Soil 7.54 minutes Discussion: Soil naturally traps water and this can be determined by testing it for Soil Permeability. It took the longest for the 50mL of water to drip through the clay because it didnt drip at all. Clay is a highly water absorbing substance and when wet the particles cling together creating a thick goop. This thick clay settled in the bottom of the funnel. There were no more gaps to allow water to flow through so it accumulated in the funnel. In the environment clay soil also absorbs this water and when it reaches a certain point of water absorbency it can no longer absorb any more water. This non-absorbed water runs off the clay soil and floods nearby rivers and creeks. This not only becomes damaging floodwater but it limits the clay to how much nutrients they can absorb through the water. The drainage of soil is also important. Soil that either drains to fast or drains to slow can affect the floras growth. The clay could not drain and this would lead to root rot and lack of oxygen available to the plants roots. Mangrove mud can absorb a lot of water and therefore trap a lot of nutrients. However they also contain a lot of clay (26% to 46%) and this along with the increase in water due to tidal activity makes it difficult for mangroves to absorb oxygen through underground root systems. This is the reason that mangroves have evolved to have roots like stilt roots, aerial roots and knee roots. The rainforest soil drained the fastest of all the soil samples. Rainforest soil is full of flora debris that creates well draining holes in the soil. The soil is also well aerated which allows gaps for the water to run through. This is not a problem for the flora as it is well known that a lot of rain falls in rainforest areas. Conclusion: It is necessary to have a good balance of absorbency and drainage to make conditions for flora growth as good as possible. Mangroves live in a less suited environment and this has been the reason for the evolution of above ground roots to breath and help with stability. Experiment 3 Field Capacity: Aim: To measure the water-holding ability of a soil. This is to get an idea of the maximum amount of soil moisture available to plants, since the water which drains off due to gravity is in the root zone too briefly to be absorbed. Prediction: I predict that the Rainforest Soil will have the best water-holding ability however the Inner Zone Mud will hold the least amount of water.. Equipment: * The 6 Saturated Soil samples left over from the last experiment * 6 x 100mL beakers * 6 x plastic spoons or spatulas * Balance accurate to 0.01g * Permanent marker * Drying oven set at no more than 105à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C Procedure: 1. Label each evaporating dish so that later when the saturated soil sample is added it is not confused with the other ones. 2. Weigh each evaporating and record its weight under its appropriate name on the results table. 3. Transfer each soil sample to its appropriately labeled evaporating dish (do not include the filter wool used in the last experiment). 4. Weigh each evaporating dish along with its soil sample. Subtract the weight of the evaporating dish from this weight to find the weight of the Soil + Water. 5. Place the dishes in a drying oven at 100à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C and allow the dish to dry for 24 hours. 6. Allow the evaporating dishes to cool then weigh them. Subtract the weight of the dish from this weight to find the weight of dry soil. 7. Subtract the weight of dry soil away from the weight of the original soil + water to find the weight of water lost. Results: Trinity Beach Stoney Creek Rainforest Clay Outer Zone Mud Middle Zone Mud Inner Zone Mud 1. Mass of Evaporating Dish 49.62 41.62 48.09 43.51 48.22 45.31 2. Mass of Evaporating Dish and Saturated Soil 97.71 78.78 90.31 83.88 82.00 85.29 3. Mass of Saturated Soil (2 1) 48.09 37.16 42.22 40.37 33.78 39.98 4. Mass of Evaporating Dish and Dry Soil (Final Mass) 87.22 63.07 79.09 68.25 70.81 70.87 5. Mass of Dry Soil (4 1) 37.60 21.45 31.00 24.74 22.59 25.56 6. Mass of Water in Soil (3 5) 10.49 15.71 11.22 15.63 11.19 14.42 7. Percent of Water in Soil Mass Of Water (6) Mass Of Saturated Soil (3) 21.81 % 42.28 % 26.58 % 38.72 % 33.13 % 36.07 % Discussion: Field capacity is a measurement of the water-holding ability of individual soils. Soil can only hold so much water and then the rest becomes drain off. This in turn is the maximum amount of water available to the flora growing in that soil. The Stoney Creek Rainforest soil sample contained the most amount of water held in the sample (42.28%). This high percentage means that this particular soil sample holds the most amount of nutrient rich water for flora use. This is highly beneficial for the use of the plant at that time and also for storage of water and nutrients for later. The increased holding ability of the soil means that less water is wasted. The soil with the least holding ability is the Trinity Beach sand (21.81%). The Trinity Beach sand sample is obviously from the beach and this is by a tidal mass of water. These tidal tendencies soak the soil say once a day. The tide is always going to be there so the soil does not need to store as much water. Also it is not capable of storing a lot of water because of its grainy structure instead of finer particles (silt and clay) that can absorb water (Experiment 1). Mangroves need to absorb a lot of water to obtain as much nutrients as possible. Mangrove mud is able to hold a lot of water (33% to 39%) however this water is predominantly saline. The mangroves have evolved to use this nutrient rich water by filtering out the salt. This leaves the plant with fresh water filled with the nutrients. Conclusion: It is necessary for some soils to absorb a lot of water but it is also important to have a certain level of drainage ability. If the soil absorbed ALL of the water then root rot would occur. Also if all of this water was absorbed then the ground beneath our feet would become a sloppy mess unsuitable for walking on. Experiment 4 Capillary Action Of Soil: Aim: To observe the rate at which water is absorbed into different soil samples using a Capillary Action setup (see Diagram). Water is absorbed by soil as the soil contains small spaces where water can be held. Prediction: I predict that the Stoney Creek rainforest will absorb the most amount of water over the designated days and the Inner Mud Zone will absorb the least. Materials; * 2 x Mud samples from different areas of the mangroves (Inner ; Middle Zones) * 3 x Samples of various areas (Beach, Rainforest and Clay Soil) * 5 x 50cm Clear Plastic Tube, approximately 2cm in diameter. * 5 x Clamps and Stands * 5 x bottom half of Petri Dishes * Permanent marker * Filter Wool * Beaker to top up Petri Dishes * Ruler marked with millimeters Note: The Outer Zone mud sample was too hard to insert and pack into a tube so it was not tested. Diagram: Procedure: 1. Loosely plug one end of each plastic tube with filter wool and trim the excess ends. 2. Label each tube and three quarters fill the named tube with the appropriate dried soil. 3. Tap the tubes to settle the soil. 4. Clamp the tubes above a Petri dish so that it is held just off the bottom of the dish. 5. Fill the Petri dish with water and refill it when necessary during the experiment. 6. Measure the height of the water absorbed up the tube at the time intervals shown in Table 4. Results: Monday 21 May Tuesday 22 May Wednesday 23 May Rate of Absorbency (average mm per day) 30 mins 10:00 am 1 hour 10:30 am 2 hours 11:30 am 3 hours 12:30 am 4 hours 1:30 pm 24 hours 9:30 am 48 hours 9:30 am Inner Zone Mud 34 mm 40 mm 52 mm 53 mm 55 mm 105 mm 146 mm 48.7 mm per day Middle Zone Mud 32 mm 33 mm 41 mm 44 mm 45 mm 71 mm 93 mm 31 mm per day Trinity Beach 94 mm 99 mm 114 mm 124 mm 133 mm 184 mm 243 mm 81 mm per day Clay 36 mm 39 mm 52 mm 53 mm 64 mm 107 mm 219 mm 73 mm per day Stoney Creek Rainforest 44 mm 47 mm 54 mm 55 mm 56 mm 120 mm 121 mm 40.3 mm per day Discussion: All soil samples have small gaps between the particles where water is absorbed and stored. All soil samples have their own characteristics and this could account for the individual rates at which they are able to absorb water. The Trinity Beach Soil sample absorbed the most amount of water in 3 days (243mm). This sample has a high percentage of sand grains in its soil. These grains are quite large and because of their irregular shape when packed together they are not completely fitting. This leaves small gaps between the grains where water can be absorbed. The Middle Zone Mud sample absorbed the least amount of water in 3 days (93mm). I do not believe this is an accurate reading because when it came time to fill the plastic tube with the sample it was extremely difficult as the Middle Zone Mud had bonded together. This was due to the clay percentage in the soil. When the soil dried so had the clay and this formed an almost rock like substance. This was also the reason why the Outer Zone Mud sample was not tested. It had also become a solid mass that could not be sieved to obtain the finer particles needed for this experiment. In previous experiments mangrove mud was quite high in the amount of water present in its soil. Also in experiment 2 Soil Permeability the Outer Zone and also the Middle Zone mud drained the fastest and this was due to the fact that they had gaps in between their particles to allow water to flow through. This is similar to the principle used in this experiment so I would assume that had this experiment been done accurately that these two zones would have absorbed close to the highest amounts absorbed over 3 days. Mangroves thrive in these muddy environments and have learnt to avoid the drowning affect that extensive amounts of water often have on plants. Some species of mangrove have evolved to have above ground roots such as stilt roots and aerial roots. When the tide begins to rise in the areas where mud is present (around the coastline) it is quickly absorbed into the mud and held there. This provides nutrients for the mangroves but without the above ground roots they would be dead. This strategy that the mangroves have helps to support my theory that the Outer and Middle Zone mud must be able to absorb water at quite a fast rate even though the reading for Middle Zone mud says otherwise. Conclusion: The ability to absorb a lot of water at a relatively fast rate is important to trap nutrients in the soil. However it is important to balance the soil to water ratio because flooded soil is not what the plants need. Experiment 5 Soil pH: Aim: To observe the individual pH levels of soils. Prediction: I predict that the Middle Zone Mud sample will have the highest acidity (below 7). Trinity Beach on the other hand will have the lowest acidity (higher than 7). Materials: * 3 x Mud samples from different areas of the mangroves (Inner, Middle and Outer Zones) * 3 x Samples of various areas (Beach, Rainforest and Clay Soil) * pH kit * Distilled water * 6 x small beakers * 6 x stirring rods * Permanent marker Procedure: 1. Label each beaker and add the appropriate dried soil to each beaker. Make sure each soil sample is approximately the same. 2. Add approximately the same amount of distilled water to each beaker. 3. Thoroughly stir the beakers to dissolve as much soil as possible. 4. Test each beaker of soil sample with the pH tester and remember to wash the tester with distilled water after every beaker. Results: Soil Sample Ph level Trinity Beach 6.1 Stoney Creek Rainforest 6.7 Clay 5.9 Outer Zone Mud 7.0 Middle Zone Mud 7.2 Inner Zone Mud 8.4 Discussion: Soil pH is an indication of the alkalinity or acidity of soil. A pH meter ranges from 0 to 14 and 7 is the point at which soil is deemed neutral. Some plants tend to thrive in one condition but placed in another death is inevitable. They prefer either one or the other along with many soil organisms that live alongside the flora. The pH of the soil can also affect the availability of nutrients. The table below left shows the different types of nutrients available to flora depending on the pH of the soil. The table at the right shows the scale of pH and how to read this scale. Acid Neutral Alkali 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 nitrogen, N phosphorus, P potassium, K calcium, Ca magnesium, Mg sulphur, S iron, Fe manganese, Mn boron, B copper, Cu zinc, Zn molybdenum, Mo The pH of soil can be affected by decomposing matter, rainfall, fertilisers, and the original materials that the soil was formed from. Soil that is mixed with rocks that have a low pH reading generally have a higher acidity level. The soil that has been mixed with rocks that have a high pH will have a lower acidity level (a basic pH level). When it rains nutrients are leached from the soil by the passing water. This is a good thing as it makes the nutrients available for the plants however it does change the acidity level as these nutrients are being replaced by acidic elements such as aluminium and iron. This is asumed to be the reason why soil formed in rainy conditions is more acidic than that formed in dryer conditions. The decomposition of matter also makes the soil more acidic. The Inner Zone Mud sample had the highest pH reading (8.4). This reading, using the pH scale rates the soil as Moderatly Alkine. The other mud samples are closer to 7 and nutural and this could be due to the fact that the Inner Zone is not as flushed with floodwater and tide as the other Zones and therefore the soil is not subject to changes in acidity in the ways stated above. The soil with the lowest pH reading was the Clay sample (5.9). Using the pH scale this means that the soil is Moderatly acid. I am not too sure of the accuracy of this reading as it does not agree with the facts on pH examined above. A search on the internet comes up with the following results. More often than not, clay soil is alkaline (has a high pH).1 Conclusion: The acidity of the soil is affected by elements of nature such as rainfall, decomposing of matter and rock matter present in the soil. It is also STRONGLY affected by fertilisers washed into the soil from farms and gardens. Experiment 6 Soil Organic Matter (Humus): Aim: To determine the percentage of soil organic matter (Humus) in each soil sample through heating. Prediction: I predict that the rainforest will contain the most amount of Humus and that the clay will contain the least amount of Humus. Materials: * The six dry soil samples form experiment 3 Field Capacity. * 6 x evaporating dishes * 6 x heat mats, tripod, pipe clay triangle and wire gauze * 6 x Bunsen burner * Metal Spatula * Tongs * Balance accurate to 0.01g Diagram: Procedure: 1. Label each evaporating dish and weigh it. Record each weight at its appropriate name on the results table. 2. Add the dry soil samples from experiment 3 to their appropriately labeled dish. 3. Find the Mass of the dry soil present (No 3 on the results table) by subtracting the mass of the Evaporating dish from the mass of the evaporating dish PLUS the dry soil. 4. Set up the 6 sets of Bunsen burner, heat mat, tripod, pipe clay triangle and wire gauze as shown in the diagram. 5. Heat the soil strongly for 15 minutes remembering to turn it often with the spatula during heating. 6. Remove the dishes from the heat and allow them to cool on a heat mat. 7. Weigh them all again and record the weights in the No 4 column. 8. Work out the other weights using (No 5 and No 6) the results table. 9. Work out the Percentages using the formula shown. Results: Trinity Beach Stoney Creek Rainforest Clay Outer Zone Mud Middle Zone Mud Inner Zone Mud 1. Mass of Evaporating Dish 49.62 41.62 48.09 43.51 48.22 45.31 2. Mass of Evaporating Dish and Air-Dry Soil 87.22 63.07 79.09 68.25 70.81 70.87 3. Mass of Air Dry Soil (2 1) 37.60 21.45 31.00 24.74 22.59 25.56 4. Mass of Evaporating Dish and Soil After Strong Heating 86.14 60.83 77.94 66.34 69.67 70.53 5. Mass of Heated Soil (4 1) 36.52 19.21 29.85 22.83 21.45 25.22 6. Mass of Organic Matter (3 5) 1.08 2.24 1.15 1.91 1.14 0.34 7. Percent Of Organic Matter Mass of Organic Matter (6) Mass of Air-Dry Soil (3) 2.87 % 10.44 % 3.71 % 7.72 % 5.07 % 1.33 % Discussion: Organic matter in the soil is debris that has been discarded by other flora and this acts like mulch. It releases nutrients into the soil as the bacteria and fungi decompose it. In soil such as Stoney Creek Rainforest the percentage of Humus is relatively high in comparison to the actual soil (10.44%). This is due to the fact that Rainforests contain a huge number of plants which are constantly depositing dead leaf litter and branches. These are in turn decomposed to form smaller particles that become part of the soil below. These smaller particles also help to create gaps in the soil that can be used to absorb water/nutrients and also to aerate the soil. The Inner Zone Mud sample contained the least amount of Humus (1.33%). This is because not very much can grow in its soil. Some of the smaller species of mangroves do grow their but they do not exceed about 2.5m in height. The Inner Zone is too far away from the tidal area to be able to absorb much water. This leaves this area with limited nutrient supply and also limited water supply. When the soil was collected from this area it was dry and hard to dig up however the mud collected from the Outer Zone was goopy and sticky. These differences are due to the fact that one area gets more water than the other. In the Outer Zone much more flora grows and this in turn creates more leaf litter and debris to be absorbed into the soil. Conclusion: Not only does Humus provide gaps for water to be absorbed into but it also provides extra nutrients for plants. The percentage of Humus depends on the amount of vegetation growing in the soil and also the tendencies for those plants to deposit leaves and other debris. Experiment 7 Identifying Bacteria Growth in Soil Aim: To determine the amount of Bacteria and Fungi growth in different soil samples. To compare the growth against each other to determine which area has the greatest amount of decomposers. Prediction: I predict that the Rainforest sample will have the most amounts of Bacteria and Fungi and that the Inner Zone Mud sample will have the least amount of Bacteria and Fungi. Materials: * Enough Molten Agars to fill 6 Petri Dishes * Distilled water * Permanent Marker * 6 Beakers * Stirring Rods * 6 pipettes * Sticky Tape * 3 x Mud samples from different areas of the mangroves (Inner, Middle and Outer Zones) * 3 x Samples of various areas (Beach, Rainforest and Clay Soil) * Camera * Incubator Diagrams: Diagram 1: Diagram 2: Diagram 3: Procedure: 1. Warm up pre prepared agar until it becomes molten. 2. Whilst the agar is warming take the 6 small beakers and label them. 3. Add 1 teaspoon of dirt to the appropriately named beaker and add 50mL of water to each beaker. 4. Thoroughly mix the dirt in the beaker until as much of it has dissolved as possible. 5. Label 6 sets of Agar plates. 6. For each plate half fill it with agar then add a sample of the appropriate soil sample using a pipette. Put the lid on and firmly sticky tape it shut. 7. Repeat this with the other 5 agar plates. 8. Place all the agar plates in an incubator at 20à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C. Results: Inner Zone Mud sample Middle Zone Mud sample Outer Zone Mud sample Trinity Beach sample Stoney Creek Rainforest sample Clay sample Discussion: It is difficult to see the details in the pictures above but when viewing them naturally it was possible to see that the Beach grew the most Fungi and Bacteria. This was the amount visible in the agar not by separating the colonies into either Fungi or Bacteria. Soil pH affects the suitability for fungi and bacteria growth. The pH of the beach was moderately acidic and this is only slightly below the pH level preferred by most soil bacteria. Fungi, moulds and anaerobic bacteria and tend to multiply in higher numbers the lower the pH level is. This is in accordance with the low pH of the Trinity Beach Sample. Conclusion: Bacteria and fungi growth is predominatly determined by the pH levels of the soil. Summary: Different soil types have individual characteristics which in turn affect the vegetation growth in that particular soil. Below are the results of all of the experiments (excluding Experiment 7). Inner Zone Mud Middle Zone Mud Outer Zone Mud Stoney Creek Rainforest Trinity Beach Sand Clay Soil % Sand 41.46 % 29.73 % 9.80 % Minimal 84.85 % 22.22 % % Silt 31.71 % 24.32 % 56.86 % à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 76.32 % 12.12 % 24.07 % % Clay 26.83 % 45.95 % 33.34 % 23.68 % 3.03 % 53.70 % Time It Takes For 50mL Of Water To Pass Through Saturated Soil Sample 13.56 mins 17.2 mins 23.14 mins 7.54 mins 17.32 mins No Dripping Percent of Water in Soil 36.07 % 33.13 % 38.72 % 42.28 % 21.81 % 26.58 % Average Rate Of Absorbency Per Day Over 3 Days 48.7 mm 31 mm N/A 40.3 mm 81 mm 73 mm pH Of Soil 8.4 7.2 7.0 6.7 6.1 5.9 Percent Of Organic Matter In Soil 1.33 % 5.07 % 7.72 % 10.44 % 2.87 % 3.71 % The Stoney Creek Rainforest is overall the best soil sample. The soil sample has good drainage which avoids root rot and oxygen deprival because of too much water flooding the soil. However the soil sample can also hold a lot of water which is necessary for trapping nutrients in the soil. The pH of the soil is close to neutral which is good for promoting Bacteria and Fungal growth. These Bacteria and Fungi help to decompose the high percentage of Organic Matter present in this soil type. The vegetation in the Stoney Creek Rainforest area where this sample was collected is thriving with lush, tropical plants. This type of vegetation needs a lot of water and the soil provides necessary water holding abilities and absorbency rates to hold this water. The flora growing in this area is prone to shedding leaves and this is accountable for the high percentage of Organic Matter. Rainforest soil is appropriate for most flora growth as it contains high nutrient levels. However the soil drains really fast and if clearing occurs the topsoil is easily washed away. The soil which is least suitable for soil growth is Clay. It does not drain easily however it also absorbs water at a relatively strong rate. This is not a good combination as it leaves the soil open to over saturation and also oxygen depletion. This over saturation causes the soil to become unsuitable for most vegetation growth. Most plants prefer well drained soil. Mangroves have evolved to live in saline environments whose soil is flooded half the day at least. They have evolved to have above ground roots that help the plant to breath. These roots also provide stability for the plants in mud that is soft and often unstable due to the high percentage in water. The Outer Zone Mud sample and the Middle Zone Mud Sample both had relatively neutral pH and this preferable pH level was backed up by the higher percentage in vegetation compared to the Inner Zone Mud sample where less vegetation grew along with less water content. All vegetation growth is affected by the soil environment they are in however some plants have adapted to better suit this difference.

Balanced Budget Amendment 1997 Analysis

Balanced Budget Amendment 1997 Analysis Balanced Budget Amendment Vu Luu    Introduction In March 4, 1997, the balanced budget amendment was defeated in the United States Senate by just one vote. Fast forward to the present, the United States is facing a $17 trillion deficit versus the $5 trillion in 1997. The question that remains to be asked is had the balanced budget amendment passed the United States Senate and approved by Congress in 1997, would we be facing the debt crisis that we are facing today? Based on my conclusion, the answer that I believe is no, the debt crisis would not have been as severe as it is today. In this paper I will argue why the United States need a national balanced budget amendment in the constitution. In particular, I will discuss the following points to back up my claim; future implications if no changes in policies and solving government spending. As the United States’ federal deficit continues to grow, many are asking for a balanced budget amendment to be added to the constitu tion. A balanced budget amendment would require the federal government not to spend more than it receives in revenue. This means it would be unconstitutional and against the law for the federal government to accumulate budget deficits. THE NATIONAL DEBT ISN’T GOING TO GO AWAY According to the 2012 Congressional Budget Office report, our current policies will eventually lead to a federal debt that would eventually reach a 90% gross domestic product by 2022, 109% by 2026, and 200% by 2037 (CBO 11). These estimates are based on the assumption that our current laws remain generally unchanged and that our spending policies which is the cause of the accumulation of budget deficits remain the same. The CBO budget estimates are also based on forecasts of economic state, demographic trends, and past experience. The other interesting estimate that the CBO reported was that even if there were general changes in our current laws, they estimate that the budget deficit would reach about 60 % of GDP by 2020 which is only 10% lower than our current situation (CBO 7). As indicated by the chart above, our annual deficit through 2021 would never drop below $1 trillion dollars under current policies. Although the main cause of the spike in deficit spending from 2008-2011 was mainly due to the recession, the Congressional Budget Office doesn’t believe the United States would recover under current laws. The balance budget amendment does allow exception, which in this case is the recession. If the national balance budget amendment was in place then after 2011, the annual deficit would only go down because of the radical budget changes in programs. It’s pretty apparent that the money we are borrowing is increasing more and more, but what will happen when it reaches that point when we have to start repaying these loans? The government textbook gives us a great example of what happened to Greece when they couldn’t pay off all their loans. The interest rates o n Greek government went way up and by 2011, they had to pay 25% to obtain a two-year loan from private sector (Sidlow 6). Compared to the United States, we are paying a mere 0.44% compared to the 25% Greece had to pay. The ending results in the Greek government shut out of private borrowing and had to depend on other European countries. The Greece example and the CBO’s estimates are huge future implications and urge for huge changes in our policies which I believe is the federal balanced budget amendment.

Foucault Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Foucault - Essay Example This evolution of his theory can be traced from 1960's to 1980's and reveal a pattern of study of how power influences decision-making. In 1960's he uses terms like 'contestation' and 'transgression' and uses them interchangeably. In 1970's Foucault moved to 'struggle' and 'resistance' which are again synonymous. And finally in 1980's he used the term 'agonism'. All these terms used through a period of time defining his core focus on the play of resistance, and Foucault's conceptualization of power rather than strict references made to limits. (AMOUDI) Foucault's power-resistance relation is a dynamic analysis of the modern day world. The groundwork of the role of power being laid in the previous theories which evolved between 1960's and 1970's, the economics of power has been more rigorously presented in these theories. Michel Foucault goes further to give a definition of power relations in an essay published in 1982: 'The exercise of power is not simply a relationship between partners, individual or collective; it is a way in which certain actions modify others' Although the exercise of power may need violence or consent, these are not inherent to a power relation. Moreover, one of the consequences of this limit to power is that resistance is the sine qua non condition for power. Indeed, a power relation, is not an action which determines another action, but an action which influences an other action by determining a field of possibility for it. In this field of possibility, ways of resisting are by definition present. The second limit set to power relations, therefore, is fight. According to Foucault, the goal of a fight is either to force the opponent to abandon the game (hence a victory which dissolves the power relation) or to set up a new relation of power. In other words, there is circularity between power relations open to fight and a fight aiming at power relations. Therefore there is a constant instability in a power relationship which excludes by definition any form of determinism. By stressing the ontological link between power and resistance, Foucault invites us to understand his reading of the mechanisms of power h e highlights. Power is to be understood then as a form of power, which is perpetually confronted with potential (and some time actual) resistance. (AMOUDI) In his book Order of Things and Foucault Reader, he addresses the power of observation and the impact of it on the observed. He emphasizes that observing people and judging them requires a degree of conformity, which is less obvious and subsequently, according to Foucault more powerful because of its restrained state. This same impact is seen in Panopticism where Foucault shows a transition in prison systems from physical manipulation to implicit manipulation. This new form of control is implemented through a physical construction that creates the illusion of continual surveillance. This surveillance creates the impetus for self-control. It is the power of being observed which places the role of control on the subjects. People control themselves out of a desire not to be looked down upon - to control their own public reputations. Panopticism works in a similar way - by continual observation or the illusion of continual observation, people are expected to continually discipline thems elves so as to avoid being disciplined by an external source (Foucault & Rabinow) The power which is

Contemporary & Future Challenges in HRM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Contemporary & Future Challenges in HRM - Essay Example They help an organization to form a competitive edge in which may be difficult for competitors to have. Therefore the function of the human resource department then becomes central to the operation of any organization. The department is given the role of hiring, supervising and organizing training and development of the workforce. Therefore it is important to the management and development of the workforce. In order to function properly, human resource department comes with particular policies and strategic plans that act as guidelines on how the organization is going to function. These policies and guidelines helps the organization to function properly in light of various workforce need for the organization. In order to ensure that these polices meets the needs for the organization and of the workforce, strategic human resource management (SHRM) has become the cornerstone for planning any human resource activities in an organization. Therefore SHRM has become the central focus to the operation of the human resource. SHRM implies the organized way in which the human resource department and in this case the whole organization comes up with strategies to manage the workforce. It involves taking into consideration a number of perspectives which are important of the operation of the department as a whole. ... It is a broader perspective of the HR department and its functions. One of the key components that have enabled the concept of SHRM to take root has been the changing wave of technology in the market. The use of modern technology has been one of the most important factors that have enabled the human resource department to implement various strategies that have been aimed at making its work easier. This paper will look into how technology has been used in the department and the future operations of the department in light of the changing technology in the market. Use of technology in the HRM department Human resource technology has been emerging in the market as the new discipline which has tried to integrate the use of technology in the function of the HRM department. In this case it has been working to ensure that there is application of appropriate technology in HRM in order to enhance the functioning the department. Technology has affected positively and negative to all the spheres of life. While it may have led to loss of jobs, it has been able to increase efficiency, accuracy and time completion of function. The modern technology especially the evolution in the use of computers can be held responsible for having created an effective work place. There has been reduction of errors as a result of manual computation and at the same time there has been increase effective and timely delivery of the needed data. Technology has found a place to be used in the while organizations. It has dictated the standards of an acceptable modern office whose efficiency is riveted on the amount of advanced technology equipment that have been installed. (Bates 2002, p. 82) The revolution of modern technology has affected all

Destiny, Fate, Free Will and Free Choice in Oedipus the King - The Para

A Paradox: Oedipus's Free will in the Play Oedipus Rex William Shakespeare once wrote, "Who can control his fate?" (Othello, Act v, Sc.2).  A hero and leader must acknowledge above all else his honor, and the pride of his image.   In ancient Greek beliefs, a hero was a man who stood taller than the rest; he was able to better any conflict.   He did this not for himself or for any token award that may be given to him, but for the security of his fellow man.   Physical strength and superior wit are the two major characteristics of a hero.   These characteristics may be destined; but the use of them to help his fellow man is will.   Sophocles's short play Oedipus Rex is a tale of a hero's ascent to King and tragic fall.   The young Prince Oedipus leaves his home in Corinth and arrives at Thebes, only to find that the town is cursed by the Sphinx.   After solving the riddle given by the Sphinx, the blight is lifted, and the town declares Oedipus as their new leader and King.   After a long rein Oedipus's ruling comes to a h eartrending fall.   Through his journey, we as readers are able to see the perils and obstacles facing the hero.   Yet we are never sure if the voyage was predetermined by the gods, or whether Oedipus alone is responsible for his actions?   Greek beliefs show Oedipus's realization of the truth and horrific blinding can be thought as a direct consequence of his actions taken from free will. Oedipus is a hero.   Oedipus makes an unaided choice to follow his destiny, (A destiny that he imagined for himself) to become a man that has no fear and will pursue justice at any cost.   The choices made by Oedipus makes him a touching character and not merely a puppet of the gods.   This can be more clearly seen in the quote of Oedi... ...egardless he pays no attention and hard-headily continues his investigation. My own good Snaps my patience, then; I want none of it. (55) From the above quotes and text it may be projected that indeed Oedipus was a man of free will.   To conclude, the life and path of Oedipus can be looked at as his own.   His intensions and thoughts throughout the entire play were nothing but pure. My old lacrosse coach, a man that has been through what seems the worst in life once said,"10% of life is given to us, and 90% is what we do with it."   Oedipus was a hero and had the ability to carve his own trail, though his persona of the hero made it easy to fall into many of the traps he fell in to.   Regardless, to look Oedipus's life as a predetermined story demoralizes the morals and heart of this play. The greatest griefs are those we cause ourselves (Oedipus Rex Pg. 65) Destiny, Fate, Free Will and Free Choice in Oedipus the King - The Para A Paradox: Oedipus's Free will in the Play Oedipus Rex William Shakespeare once wrote, "Who can control his fate?" (Othello, Act v, Sc.2).  A hero and leader must acknowledge above all else his honor, and the pride of his image.   In ancient Greek beliefs, a hero was a man who stood taller than the rest; he was able to better any conflict.   He did this not for himself or for any token award that may be given to him, but for the security of his fellow man.   Physical strength and superior wit are the two major characteristics of a hero.   These characteristics may be destined; but the use of them to help his fellow man is will.   Sophocles's short play Oedipus Rex is a tale of a hero's ascent to King and tragic fall.   The young Prince Oedipus leaves his home in Corinth and arrives at Thebes, only to find that the town is cursed by the Sphinx.   After solving the riddle given by the Sphinx, the blight is lifted, and the town declares Oedipus as their new leader and King.   After a long rein Oedipus's ruling comes to a h eartrending fall.   Through his journey, we as readers are able to see the perils and obstacles facing the hero.   Yet we are never sure if the voyage was predetermined by the gods, or whether Oedipus alone is responsible for his actions?   Greek beliefs show Oedipus's realization of the truth and horrific blinding can be thought as a direct consequence of his actions taken from free will. Oedipus is a hero.   Oedipus makes an unaided choice to follow his destiny, (A destiny that he imagined for himself) to become a man that has no fear and will pursue justice at any cost.   The choices made by Oedipus makes him a touching character and not merely a puppet of the gods.   This can be more clearly seen in the quote of Oedi... ...egardless he pays no attention and hard-headily continues his investigation. My own good Snaps my patience, then; I want none of it. (55) From the above quotes and text it may be projected that indeed Oedipus was a man of free will.   To conclude, the life and path of Oedipus can be looked at as his own.   His intensions and thoughts throughout the entire play were nothing but pure. My old lacrosse coach, a man that has been through what seems the worst in life once said,"10% of life is given to us, and 90% is what we do with it."   Oedipus was a hero and had the ability to carve his own trail, though his persona of the hero made it easy to fall into many of the traps he fell in to.   Regardless, to look Oedipus's life as a predetermined story demoralizes the morals and heart of this play. The greatest griefs are those we cause ourselves (Oedipus Rex Pg. 65)

Modernism in “A passage to India”

Modernism refers to a classification of literature that was written between 1914 and 1965.   E. M. Forster's A Passage to India was published in 1924, placing it in the early years of the Modernist Period as well as within the Georgian Age (Harmon 597).   In art and literature, Modernism paralleled the rise of industrial technology and advances in science. In music, atonalism – that is, music which deliberately avoids key centers and is often dissonant – was produced by composers such as Arnold Schoenberg. Visual art found expression in cubism. Theories by Sigmund Freud also had a powerful influence on this movement. In literature, the Modernistic writing style is characterized by breaking with tradition.   It is inner-self oriented, and that inner-self is often explored using a stream of consciousness manner.   Modernism rejects traditional values and assumptions.   The individual takes pride of place while the social and outward are cast aside.   Some scholars see Modernism as a reaction to the practical and systematic sensibilities of Realism and Naturalism (Harmon 326). Not surprisingly, the Modern Era was also when Existentialism came into prominence – a related philosophy in which human beings are expected to create their own meaning for existence.   Forster's â€Å"Oriental-leaning† characters in this novel provide examples of a Modernistic mindset contrasting with the traditional English Imperialist mindset provided by other characters. Forster uses the symbol of water to represent the idea of renewal in the â€Å"Temple† chapter. There is an event in which the Hindus are â€Å"preparing to throw God away† (Forster 308), and part of the ceremony involves a replica of the village of Gokul that is placed on a tray and is to perish.   Meanwhile, the British and others are in boats out in the water, observing the festivities, and the boats collide, expelling the passengers.   The symbolic village perishes so that it can be renewed, and is representative of the renewal of mindsets of some of the passengers in the boats. Aziz in particular in the latter portion of the â€Å"Temple† section, exhibits several examples of stream of consciousness thinking.   In one instance Fielding asks Aziz to meet with Stella and Ralph, and Aziz does not reply.   Instead, the reader is allowed into his thoughts, which are not linear but circular, and is one example of how a human mind jumps around from topic to feeling to emotion and back (Forster 314). Because Forster is examining traditional values through a Modernistic lens in this novel, material detail is much less important than what the characters are thinking.   The action in this story is in each character's mind, and how they grapple with new ideas concerning culture, religion, and morality. Professor Godbole and Mrs. Moore express their inner character and the workings of their minds in an â€Å"Oriental† manner, embodied in the Hindu sensibility.   Mrs. Moore, although a Christian, is accepted into Oriental culture, and she clashes with Heaslop prior to Aziz's trial.   Heaslop does not understand his mother because he does not recognize her spirituality, and he sides with the English Imperialist mindset against Aziz, the Oriental.   Mrs. Moore will have no part in helping her son succeed to the detriment of an Oriental.   She ultimately leaves India and the trial (Forster 201). In A Passage to India, Forster uses Modernism to explore the inclusive attitude of the â€Å"Oriental† and how diverse people make their passages in coming to terms with this sensibility.   Forster makes use of a Modernistic approach to help him tell a story with great depth, complexity and surprise. Works Cited Forster, E. M.   A Passage to India.   New York:   Harcourt, 1924. Harmon, William and C. High Holman.   A Handbook to Literature. 7th ed.   Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:   Prentice Hall, 1996.   

Science Changes The World Of Science - 1463 Words

Brandon M Daniels 2/23/15 CH 202 Essay #1 Science Changes the World Science has taken people to places far beyond the stars. Physicists, Scientists, Mathematicians, and Philosophers have shaped most of society’s views of the world we live in. Through theory, experiments, and ideas of the scientific revolution Isaac Newton, Rene Descartes, and Francis Bacon have not only changed the geocentric past but also have had me welcome the heliocentric view. Heliocentrism is the idea Earth as well as other planets revolve around the sun; the sun being the center of our Universe. Geocentrism on the other is a belief all planets as well as the sun revolve around the Earth. Reformers and astronomers had ideas of their own challenging the wisdom of the geocentric past. Isaac Newton, a physicist and mathematician, is known as one of the most influential scientists to date as well as a main symbol in the scientific revolution. Rene Descartes, a French philosopher, is described as a genius is another key figure in the scientific revol ution. Francis Bacon, an English philosopher, created inductive reasoning and is also a main character in the scientific revolution. These men and a few others began what we know as today as the scientific revolution. The scientific revolution is the development of science that changed the views of society and nature. Due to the scientific revolution, scientists, mathematician, physicists, and philosophers, have all challenged the geocentric past. 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